Short Essay 3

                                                                                                                                                                 A phenomenon was created when Parisians were exposed to jazz music and dance from the United States. In 1925 the initial introduction to jazz music and dance by means of the La Revue Negre was accepted by Paris and other European artistic circles far more openly than it's own country of origin. The Dalton and Gates article on Josephine Baker and Paul Colin mentions the African-American experience upon landing in France during World War I as being in such contrast, like night and day in comparison to the highly racist treatment they experienced in the United States. In the United States segregation was a way of life for the African-American, in France segregation is illegal. Thus this environment of acceptance provided the African-American a feeling of being human which they had never felt in their own homeland. Dalton and Gates describe the French reaction to the theater act of Le Tumulte in conjuction with the Charleston  as spellbound and quick to imitate the dance themselves.

The African-American artist found a forum that nurtured the artistic and creative mind of an intelligent human being, and the result was a level of appreciation  that traveled from the theatre audience to great classical composers such as Claude Debussy and Antonin Dvorak. The article explains a motivating factor to the French acceptance of the African-American music and dance as "degree of mirth and hedonistic and voyeuristic pleasure that they had not known for some time" which was sorely needed due to the trauma experienced from the savagery of World War I. (pg 907) The response of the French to this new dance form spearheaded the career of Paul Colin in his promotional postered advertising for the Le Tumulte act. His depictions of the lead characters were portrayed in a manner which was considered progressive in his era and are now historical artifacts. This made celebrities of Josephine Baker and her fellow artists, which they may have never experienced in the highly racist environment of the United States.

This success story was not the norm for all of African descent in Europe. For West Africans in Britain the level of racism they experienced moved them to solidarity and to create nationalistic groups that were intended to protect their human rights and provide a support network to express and explore their political ideologies. Their goal of identifying their own political and cultural needs as displaced Africans was in response to the prejudice they experienced in Britain. Hakim Adi's article gives recognition to the formation of several student unions, the National Congress of British West Africa, the Nigerian Progress Union and several outlier groups that organized to formed to provide a foundation of stabilization Africans in the diaspora and those living in Britain.

Thus the result to their treatment was a development of Pan-Africanism and activities that were influential in anti-imperialist and  anti-racist intiatives. Thus in this area of Europe socialization between the Brits and Africans was hostile due to the ethnocentric attitudes from the British, in which the African response was to organize and create networks of support to negate the harmful effects of racism and imperialism. 

2nd Essay

I propose in this essay that the articles relating to Christianity indicate that the African slave's conversion to  Christianity had a major impact on the level of success of assimilation in European society. The article by Olaudah Equiano, Christopher Brown and Nicholas Hudson provide direction to evidence that  Christianized institutions played a role in anti-slavery movement and social reform for the African slave class. The African slave benefited by means of the evangelizing Christian class who in the nurturing of the converted African slave, engaged in petitions of reform for humane treatment and recognition of the rights and value as a fellow Christian. Conversion to Christianity provided the African slave a source of empowerment towards acquiring human rights in European society. Which opened the door to freedom and the ability to being a participant in the commercial and political forums of European society as exampled by Olaudah Equiano and Paul Cufee.

A few points that support this in Christopher Brown's article are 1) the spiritual revival within Protestant communities of mid 17th century through the 18th century. Due to the nascent evangelical movement, action towards antislavery are undertaken by certain religious groups and individuals (pg 519), 2) the statement that "those preoccupied with the welfare of captive Africans typically advocated the conversion of slaves to Christianity", 3) the article states the diversity of this pattern can be found from British, French American, Spanish and Portuguese colonies and within the Jesuit, Quaker and Puritan communities. (521).

Supporting the influential role Christianity ideology played towards the impact of antislavery campaigns and social reform for the African slave in found in the article by Nicholas Hudson. Hudson's intent to refute the scholarly teachings that give much attention to the theory that antislavery activism was undertaken by radical, nonconformists within British culture yields a cornucopia of literary works and references of action undertaken by the socially conservatives of the Anglican church. Hudson also lists many members of British society that were royalists, hierarchical, fundamentally Anglican and learned men. He also mentions members of the very highest echelons of Anglican ecclesiatics were outspoken activists of antislavery. (562)

The remaining articles by Boulle, Gerzina and Peabody provide insight regarding how ethnicity and "color" were interpreted in 17th and 18th century Europe, mainly France. Both Boulle and Gerzina refer to legal cases involving French slaves which raised question of ownership and definition of what was "negro". The Gerzina article intended to enlighten the reader of the movement of Africans by means of forced migration as opposed to authors of journals writing of normal travel experiences. I liked the undertaking of this subject in her article, it substantiated Equiano's article of the opportunities opened up to seafaring slaves. Gerzina states that many African born writers tried to reconcile their enslaved status with the freedom conferred by a Christianity they discovered due to their forced movement. This statement compliments the Hudson and Brown articles in supporting the pattern of conversion to Christianity and the significant role this act played in providing assimilation within European society.